aleaf

干部上马先过心理关 专家坐镇公选干部考察

	2005年12月08日08:31

前天，在浙江省象山县公开选拔14名县管干部面试工作中，36名考生通过面试，进入组织考核阶段。就在12月2日的面试中，74名考生吃惊地发现，他们面对的考官中，还坐着三位心理学专家，参与对他们的心理素质评估。而在全省县区级公开选拔干部工作中，象山县委组织部的做法，还是第一次。 　　“这表明我们基层的政府工作，越来越人性化。”参与这次面试的心理学专家、宁波大学师范学院副教授徐钟庚说。 　　做干部心理也得健康 　　象山县委组织部有关负责人沈成浩介绍，象山县这次公选县管干部面试的考察内容，主要是从考生的综合素质，包括思维能力、组织协调能力、人际沟通能力、应变能力、分析决策能力、表达能力、情绪稳定性等方面，全面考查应试人员在领导能力方面的潜在素质。宁波大学师范学院心理学副教授徐钟庚为首的3名专家，也受到了象山县委组织部的邀请，进入评委团，协助对考生的评估。 　　多数考生表示，这种方式很新颖，内容丰富，可以尽可能地防止高分低能现象发生。“虽然这称不上学术意义的心理测试，但通过心理学知识的介入，我们在考察考生的综合能力时，能够分析出考生所表现出来的差异。”徐钟庚告诉记者说：“比如一些考察项目，从对政策的把握能力、协调能力和工作经验等方面，考察考生的应变能力，我们就发现一些个例，在考察中甚至影响到了情绪的稳定，我们就可以从心理学角度给出评估。” 　　“这样做的目的，不光是为了识人，还为了用人。”象山县委常委、组织部部长黄志明说，“要做到人职匹配，充分发挥每个人的个性特长，其中一项非常重要的参考指标，就是心理素质。在搭建领导班子时，我们将注意班子成员在性格、心理素质上的互补，使得大家能够团结共融。” 　　不再设单一考察标准 　　“这太出乎我们的意料了。”徐钟庚说：“在选拔干部、人力资源等方面结合心理学知识进行考察候选人，这在国外已经非常普遍。这些年来，我们政府高层也逐渐意识到这项工作重要性。但基层还很少能考虑得这么全面。” 　　作为心理学方面的专家，徐钟庚对此的看法是：“这样做非常有好处。首先，这是一个能力结构的问题，岗位和个人能力、人员和人员之间，都需要匹配和协调。另一方面是心理健康，我们在平时研究中也发现，在同一岗位工作，不同的人有些会感到轻松，有些人却觉得压力大，这就是工作适应的问题。” 　　“就如现在的大学生，这个群体中也存在许多心理问题。这和我们单一的以高考成绩作为评估方式也是分不开的。”徐钟庚举例说：“这表明我们的政府，尤其是在基层，选拔干部的程序越来越规范———我们在应邀作为面试评委时，也从多方面体会到了这点——把目光落到‘人’的身上，把人的心理问题，和传统的对世界观、价值观的强调区分开来，这更全面也更科学。” 　　心理评估仅仅是开始 　　“我们的合作才刚刚开始。”徐钟庚表示，“我们并没有参与考题的设置，而是仅作为评委参与面试。在短暂的面试时间内，心理学知识所产生的作用，还不够成熟和明显。” 　　所以，象山县委组织部和心理学专家们之间，已经达成了长期的合作意向。象山县委组织部明确地表示，这次县管干部公选只是一个契机，今后，宁波大学师范学院的心理学科研力量，还将为该县的干部选拔考核，提供心理学方面的协助。不仅要建立干部的心理档案，还要定期通过互联网，对干部进行心理问卷测试，及时掌握心理素质变化，建立干部心理健康预警、援助机制。同时，还将经常开展各种旨在提高和改善心理素质的培训、教育。 　　“对于我们这些心理学研究者来说，在这个过程中，也能够得到非常宝贵的实践经验和一手的研究材料，这也有助于心理学的研究成果，更多、更好地应用到我们的政府管理当中去。”徐钟庚说。(记者胡轶笛 通讯员肖康焕) 　　来源：浙江日报/今日早报

Color Psychology

Imagine you are in a red room...

请在回复中写下红色给您的想象。

=============================================

以下为老外的反应

Red Color: lace, tomato, blood, overwhelming, bright, stop, danger, heart of love. ---Robert

Red Color: Red - Excited and energized, as well as extra talkative. I'd feel very warm in a room of this color. If I was stressed out though, it would make me feel agitated. ---Sarah W.

Red Color: Red makes me breath harder and makes me think that I'd rather be anywhere except in that red room. ---Carole

Red Color: RED.....the colour of spiritual...passion.....and....HOT! ---Maya

Red Color: Stressed and Uncomfatble, Fidgety. ---Anna

Red Color: It makes me think of food and something elementary. ---Stephanie

Red Color: The colour red makes me feel angry, im very angry, and feeling trapped ---Sexyshoppa

Red Color: Confined, overwhelmed, crushed. ---Debra

Red Color: Although I usually enjoy the color red , I would be very on edge and un-relaxed in a room with that bright red color .---BLU

Red Color: Excited, awed, energized ---Maricar

Red Color: Warm and happy. ---Vaux

Red Color: An immediate shock of energy. I wanted out of there....ready to DO something active, not just stay there and FEEL internal activity. Staying there would cause anxiety. ---Marlene

Red Color: Red is my favorite color but to be inside a room of this color red would drive me mad. Red for me stands for energy and sex, a whole room would be to much, and to bright. ---Lindsay

Red Color: Red is not a colour I would choose for a room as it is too busy, not peaceful and it is too bloody! But for me red is a good colour for energy, health, love, and it brightens up the blues! ---Claudia

Red Color: This shade of red makes me want to go running...and maybe screaming. ---Meredith

Red Color: Irratated. ---Karen N.

Red Color: It makes me feel warm, squeezed in like the womb. ---Nelle

Red Color: Overwhelmed. Smothered. Trapped. ---Kale

Red Color: Anxious. Upset. Overwhelmed. ---Eliza

Red Color: This color makes me feel uncomfortable, stressed, and restless. It makes me feel like I can’t sit and relax, like I have to go and do something. Not good for a bedroom or livingroom. (P.S. Great Information! I love learning about Psychology.Thanks!) ---Amanda

Red Color: This makes me feel like I want to run and get away as fast as I can. I
feel restless and uneasy. ---J.M.

Red Color: I feel happy and I feel that it is a positive color to make me feel good about myself. ---Eed

Red Color: Since I am up late, I found that it gave me a little zip like a cup of coffee would. (I'm not drinking coffee.) ---Heart Art

Red Color: Anxious. ---Jennifer D

Red Color: Excited, energized, and VERY passionate. If I'm stressed out though, too much red makes me agitated and angry. ---Sarah W.

Red Color: Agitated & Crowded ---Jennifer

Red Color: Red just seems so hard core to me. red attracts attention and says,"here I am"! It is also a very agressive color and lets people know that they need to keep thier distance and watch what they do. However, red is also very sensual and romantic. It reminds of fire and passion. Red alo reminds of my favorite friut which is strawberries. I like red beacuse bright colors keep you from becoming too hot in hot climates. I'm Chicana and when I would visit Mexico I would wear bright colors beacuse If I wore black the heat would practically fry me. Ilike red because it effects all aspects of my life. It effects my mood and expresses my personality. ---Lady J

Red Color: I'd think a red room would make me feel enegetic, unable to focus and figidy. ---Faith

Red Color: When I see the color red I think of blood, the sun, hatred a little, it makes me feel energy, as if I'm suspose to be moving. ---Will

Red Color: What about the color burgandy, it inspires envy into someone, but not much is researched into that color, WHY? ---Dino

Red Color: Like I am in hell ---M2

Red Color: Wild, romantic, free-spirited....powerful, a real lady. ---Amy

Red Color: Passionate, driven, sexual, dominant and engrossed in strong emotion ---NLP

Red Color: Hungry and Impatient ---Thomas

Red Color: Tired ---Nathan

Red Color: Red puts me in the mind of power, yet a little scary! It conveys strength, and perseverance. I think too much time in a room that red would affect the persons outlook on life. It might create some anger or angst where non is neccesary. ---Tiffany

Red Color: Warmth, laughter, relaxation, joy ---John

Red Color: I feel neutral, numb ---Karen

Red Color: Stressed, anxious, edgy ---Tracey

Red Color: Hyper, agitated, excited ---Hreint

Red Color: I find that red can alter moods. It can make you angry, agitated, stimulated, depressed and more. I can't really describe the way red makes me feel as more than one feeling take over simply by talking about it. I know one thing...I would not want my room to be completely red ... I think I would lose myself! ---Vera

Red Color: Disciplined; Controlled; Checkerboard rules; Confined. ---Anne Marie

Red Color: Nervous,anxious but also excited and interested to what is going to follow. ---VLAXAKI

Red Color: Excited and awake, busy. ---K

Red Color: This color makes me feel closed in, claustrophobic, and depressed. I have always hated red because of that. Most people see red as being a romantic color. I see red as depressing. ---Tammy

Red Color: Anger. ---Michael

Red Color: Excited and expectant. ---Rick

Red Color: Warm, alert, and contained. ---Brandon

Red Color: Firmer, more focussed, rather surprised, would feel threatened to be in a room all of this colour. Enlivened, stimulated. ---Eleanor

Red Color: It makes me sad and i feel alone ---Jenna

Red Color: Red made me feel anxious and it felt harder to breath a little bit. ---Kutie

Red Color: Busy ---Colleen

Red Color: Hot/Spicy, exciting ---Shannon

Red Color: Depending on what mood - it will emphasis a stessed mood, making you feel like reaching boiling point. However if chilled out, it tends to make me feel excited ---Ellen

Red Color: Scared and excited ---Kriil

Red Color: This color has been my favorite color for years. Now, when I look at it and think of how it makes me feel, It hurts. Red makes me feel volnerable. As I picture myself among the color red, I don't feel safe. It gives me a feeling of danger. It can also be because it makes me remember how I have been betrayed by a loved one. ---Joanna

Red Color: Reds make me feel Sensual, Passionate, and Wealthy ---Jade

Red Color: Extreme, intense, shocking, crowded. ---Syelton

Red Color: I feel sinful. ---Phyllis

Red Color: I feel like very warm and cheerful when I look at the red colour. ---Singme

Red Color: I feel emote and power when I see red. ---Maryam

Color Psychology

Surrounded by black color...

 

请在回复中写下黑色给您的想象

=====================================================

Black Color - Enclosed, lost, sad but also gothic and shy. ---Madamesinns

Black Color - I could stay in a dark room like that if I needed to think or if I wanted to feel sorry for myself. Or meditate, since it is so dark, it makes my meditation very simple and some what relaxing. ---Lindsay

Black Color - Scared, very scared, like there is something evil there. ---Tweety

Black Color - At peace and relaxed. ---Theresa

Black Color - Trapped and depressed! ---Nlhk

Black Color - Makes me a little nervous because it reminds me of being trapped in a very dark room. ---Sarah W.

Black Color - When I look at the color black I feel somewhat calm, it causes me to think a lot, I think about myself, and the things I've done, mostly bad things. It makes me feel lonely. But it can also make me feel power, or dangerous, most if I'm wearing black. ---Will

Black Color - Black makes me feel super Goth and scared like I'm an evil Goth dude. ---Anti-Goth Prep Girl

Black Color - I would feel calm, quiet, in control, peaceful. I love black for that reason I like to be in peace. ---Jaylyn

Black Color - Considering the "colour" black is the one I have picked, I would just like to point out that black is NOT a colour! Just like white or different variations of grey, black is actually a SHADE. But the SHADE black makes me feel strong, mysterious, empowered, in control, calm and settled! ---Kay

Black Color - closed in and isolated ---Mrmrsswg

Black Color - makes me feel Classy and Sexy! ---Jade

Black Color - A black room would make me feel afraid and paranoid, reminds me of death or dying. ---Phyllis

Black Color - Sleepy. ---Loren

Color Psychology

Imagine you are in an orange room,

请在回复中写下橙色色给您的想象

======================================

Orange Colour: Happy, excited. ---Smolin

Orange Colour: Good, generous and fruit. ---Alyssa

Orange Colour: A light hearted atmosphere. Fun. Good-natured. Clean. Warm. Earthy and no nonsense. My mind is clear and I have energy. ---Liza

Orange Colour: hungry ---Kalli

Orange Colour: Makes me feel like I'm in control of the room. ---Jay

Orange Colour: Anxiously aware ---Hillary

Orange Colour: Warm and comfortable. I wouldn't mind being in a room of this color when it's cold out because it would make me feel nice and cozy. It reminds me of autumn.---Sarah W.

Orange Colour: Makes me feel bold...and like having a glass of orange juice :)...I kind of like the color, however, it is not ME somehow. It feels...imitation....like a happy facade? :) ---Penny

Orange Colour: I would not want to be in an orange room, I would want to puke, just too much orange. ---MTH

Orange Colour: The color orange makes me feel happy and energetic. ---Marc

Orange Colour: I never wear orange...but it makes me think of hippies and the sixties.....i am 29, female, so I was not around in the sixties...but it makes me think of it....old rockers ---Hopes

Orange Colour: Uneasy, Curious, and hungry ---Adam

Orange Colour: Orange makes me feel energized and creative but somewhat edgy. Makes me hungry for something of that color. Beta-carotene deficiency? ---Phyllis

Orange Colour: Excited to be alive ---Wain

Orange Colour: Orange makes me feel very happy, and jumpy.it has almost the same effect on me as yellow. Only I feel more sane, than with yellow. ---Linda

Color Psychology

Surrounded by green color...

请在回复中写下绿色给您的想象

===========================================

Green Color - Leaves, rainforest, peace, lush, money. ---Robert

Green Color - I got all jittery with this color and my temples throbbed within 5 seconds. ---Carl

Green Color - When I imagine myself in a room of green I feel rushed. Like I need to hurry and get out of there or something. ---Scott

Green Color - It always makes me feel relaxed and at peace I always associate green with being outside and free from restrictions. ---Archie

Green Color - Feeling agitated, nauseous, closed in...anxious ---Zzz

Green Color - Free, safe, proud, meant to be. ---Stephanie B.

Green Color - I feel like I'm in a forest with lots of leafy trees and at the seaside with the blue-green sea and feel I'm surrounded by plants and succulent shrubs and greens in the dessert,or Christmas green. ---MDS

Green Color - Wildness, cold air, fresh, alive. ---Alfonso

Green Color - Happy. ---Alyssa

Green Color - Calm and peaceful. ---Angelica

Green Color - This colour made me feel relaxed, peaceful, to the point where you don't really notice you're in a green room, just comfortable. ---Nik

Green Color - Safe, happy and playful. ---Toshinori

Green Color - Green reminds me of the grass and nature. This is a room I could study in or read a book, I could relax in a green room. ---Lindsay

Green Color - This colour stood out amongst the rest as it looked appealing and relaxing. I am not a big fan of the colour green but looking at the square block of colour made me think of the hospital environment, and although this isn't usually a relaxing experience, the colour had a calming effect. ---Lettie

Green Color - It makes me calm and serene. The atmosphere is calming and peaceful. It's pleasant, and although I feel quiet I feel pride, for me. ---K

Green Color - Sets my teeth on edge, irritating. ---Mrs. Na

Green Color - Inside the green room, I am thinking of a band having a concert, but I am only the audience.... what's the meaning of this? God bless! ---Raizza

Green Color - Soothing and happy. It relaxes and refreshes me, and makes me think of being outside in the summer. ---Sarah W.

Green Color - Outdoors, fresh, peaceful, serene ---Penny

Green Color - This room makes me kind of queasy... and green is my favorite color.?? ---Jennifer S.

Green Color - Warm and comfortable ---Riggi

Green Color - Green gives me a sense of intellectuality. When I am surrounded by green I feel relaxed, comforted and very grounded. A feeling of belonging where everything around you becomes peaceful. Easy breathing like walking through
in a forest on a hot day...sense of relief. ---Veronic

Green Color - First you spelled writing wrong, second, it made me feel happy, but sad..it made me feel like it was winter because of it shade..i think its because of the tint, which I think is closer to blue than yellow. ---Chi

Green Color - Relaxed and comfortable. ---Art

Green Color - Looking at this green color, I feel restored, refreshed. It also brings me the idea of a forest, plants, nature. ---Cida

Green Color - At peace,peaceful relaxed ---Alt

Green Color - Green makes me feel Happy, fresh alive and vibrant. ---Tomas

Green Color - Cheerful, relaxed, interested. ---Eleanor

Green Color - It makes me feel safe and calm ---Jenna

Green Color - Expected a white rabbit to pop out and inform me that he's late for every important date... No time to say hello, good-bye, he's late, he's late, he's late. Either that or I'm ready for a fox hunt ---Debbie

Green Color - The color green makes me feel irritable. ---Matt

Color Psychology

Surrounded by blue color...

请在回复中写下蓝色给您的想象

=====================================================

Blue Color - Water, relaxing, soothing, peaceful, sky, smooth, calm, secure. ---Robert

Blue Color - I feel calm and cheered. ---D&L

Blue Color - Happy... ---Fire

Blue Color - Excited, optimistic, curious, adventurous, hopeful .---Charles

Blue Color - Scared, cold, sad. ---Rock

Blue Color - Blue makes me feel calm and I think about Relaxing. ---Carole

Blue Color - Blue helps me have a calm mood and cools my temperature. It's the ocean (in which I have spent at least 75% of my life): the rhythm, smell, sound, container of wonderful life. ---Judi

Blue Color - When I first looked at the clolour it made me feel calm, relaxed and safe but when I imagined being surrounded by this colour in a room I felt claustrophobic panicky and I couldn't wait to leave the room. ---Effico

Blue Color - Physical elevation, to much space, draws to much undesirable attention to myself ---Stephanie

Blue Color - Being in a deep blue room makes me feel something is lacking and is distracting to me.
If I could add some orange somewhere I think I'd feel relaxed and refreshed. ---Dawn

Blue Color - Swimming. God. Icy. Cool. Relaxing. Refreshing. Water. ---Alyssa

Blue Color - I think I am freedom in blue room. I feel rest in blue room. ---Ayhan

Blue Color - The color blue made me feel sad and if I was in a room and the room was all blue I felt dizzy and wanted to fall down. ---Marie

Blue Color - This color blue (a royal blue) is too intense for me in a room. It is overwhelming and would not be a relaxing room to be in. I do not find this color inviting, although a medium to light blue is my favorite color. Navy blue is pleasing. ---Ellie

Blue Color - It makes me feel free, like I am in a world of my liking, finally. It brings a clear sense of relief and peace, like Ii am floating freely, a free spirit. Beneath the sea and naked, swimming freely, no need for oxygen from above. I feel good. ---Chambers

Blue Color - Blue makes me calm, relaxed and tranquil. ---Bruce

Blue Color - Overwhelmed. I would prefer to leave this room for one of another, quieter color. ---Jimmy

Blue Color - This color makes me feel relaxed. I feel as if I'm floating in an ocean of blue. ---Deandria

Blue Color - Calm, serene, like I'm surrounded by the ocean. ---Anonymous

Blue Color - Distant and falling. ---Tweety

Blue Color - This makes me feel as though I am secure, but I can expand in many
different ways and still maintain a balanced equilibrium. ---Anderson

Blue Color - Calm. ---Hyperchik

Blue Color - Blue makes me feel empty, alone, closed-in. I don't like blue colors in my home because they make me feel tense. ---Jason W.

Blue Color - I feel at peace. Like although I'm in the room, I can see out an endless distance. Like I'm looking at water or the sky. ---Russell

Blue Color - I think I'd be happy in a room this color. ---Kyut

Blue Color - I love this colour but I realise I love it in small doses! To be in a room with only this colour would feel too much for me - I would feel crowded and not calm I imagine. ---Norma

Blue Color - Calm, introspective ---Donna M.

Blue Color - Makes me think of being underwater. ---Monique

Blue Color - I think modern, computers, electronic ---Tammy

Blue Color - The vivid blue is cold feeling. Being in a full room of it would give me a feeling of too much energy coming from the colour. The colour would stand out more than anything in the room. ---Donna

Blue Color - Mellow, laid-back and peaceful......... although if I spent too much time in a room of this color I'd start to feel de-energized and depressed. ---Sarah W.

Blue Color - Blue makes me feel: Love, Happiness, Coziness, Winter, Rain, Sadness. ---Dan

Blue Color - This color makes me feel cool, calm, relaxed. My mind is clear and I felt happy. ---Trevor

Blue Color - It made me feel calm ---Jo

Blue Color - I feel relaxed, at peace, tranquil, but somewhat overwhelmed by the intensity of the color. There is a feeling of freedom. ---Phyllis

Blue Color - The color makes me feel I am out in the open, with blue skies and blue water. It doesn't make me feel sad to be locked up in the confined space ---Azeema

Blue Color - This color has made me feel calm, and relaxed. It was very obvious because I have been very stressed. It made me fill much better and ready for the day. ---Jason Z.

Blue Color - This color has made me feel calm, and relaxed. It was very obvious because I have been very stressed. It made me fill much better and ready for the day. ---??

Blue Color - Serious, cautious and thoughtful... hmmm... ---Richard

Blue Color - It was very relaxing. Made me want to close my eyes and forget every thing around me. ---Ms. Veda

Blue Color - Calm and tranquil ---Fred

Blue Color - I would find a blue room of that colour very overwhelming. I first picked it because it was vibrant and I found it's colour very pleasing. But the thought of being in a room that intense would be very dark. At first I found the colour refreshing.... But now I am not so sure. ---Beck

Blue Color - Refreshed, relaxed, happy, clean, awed. ---Chris

Blue Color - Blue makes me extremely relaxed. I have a feeling of security when I am surrounded in this color. ---Jennifer

Blue Color - Safe, comfortable, happy, awake, optimistic, and calm. ---Donald

Blue Color - Happy, warm, calm, sleepy. ---Eleanor

Blue Color - Excited and stimulated. Happy, warm. ---Peggy

Blue Color - Quiet and calm but not peaceful. Its like I can relax, but I know it is only temporary. ---Sunny

Blue Color - Calm, soothing, relaxed ---Gemini

Blue Color - It feels peaceful like the ocean - kind of lazy. ---Susan

Blue Color - Imagining myself in a room painted this colour blue, made me feel a sense of strength. I felt creative, assertive, calm and motivated. I would seriously consider painting my office this colour. ---Gwenna

Blue Color - The color blue makes me feel clear. By this I mean that it clears my thoughts in a positive way and this makes me relaxed all over. ---Frederic

Blue Color - Sleepy and Calm. ---Megan

Blue Color - Happy and stimulated to action. ---John

Color Psychology

Imagine you are in a yellow room...

请在回复中写下黄色给您的想象

================================================

Yellow Color: Happy, sunny, energetic, creative. ---Marsha

Yellow Color: This color yellow makes me think of sunshine, summer, being a kid again, and just happiness in general. The emotions it provokes for me are an overall cheerfulness and optimistic attitude about life. It also makes me think of having fun and being around friends and people you love and are comfortable with. ---Kerri

Yellow Color: Alive, rejuvenated, happy, and reminds me of something systematic. ---Stephanie

Yellow Color: Feels good because it's my favorite color and it's the color of leopards and jaguars and cheetahs. ---Alyssa

Yellow Color: I like the yellow, but the room would have to have a window. The color reminds me of the sun and warmth. I couldn't sleep or relax in a yellow room. ---Lindsay

Yellow Color: I feel worthy, like I've accomplished something. It gives me hope, makes me want to live and enjoy everything. It makes me determined, like when someone has just given you a motivational speech. It makes me calm and excited. It makes me addicted to itself... like now, all I want is yellow... ---Brunet

Yellow Color: Extremely cheerful and upbeat, reminds me of bright sunshine.... although it hurts my eyes after a while. I don't think I'd be able to concentrate at all in a room of this bright a yellow! ---Sarah W.

Yellow Color: Warm, safe, and happy. ---Michele

Yellow Color: Yellow makes me feel gross and angry !!!!! ---Richard

Yellow Color: Yellow makes me feel nurtured and safe and therefore happy and calm. ---Zelda

Yellow Color: Sleepy. ---Olivia

Yellow Color: nervous, restless ---Eleanor

Yellow Color: I feel kinda light headed, happy, and warm. ---Cindy

Yellow Color: Yellow makes me feel happy sunshiny smiley young cheerful positive constructive calm together unfazed ---Margie

Yellow Color: Yellow makes me feel somewhat hungry and I think about bananas when I imagine myself in a Yellow Room. ---Carole

Yellow Color: Yellow makes me feel warm, loving, jovial, relaxed, happy. ---Phyllis

Yellow Color: Yellow made me feel happy and relaxed and energized. ---Wendy

Yellow Color: Cheerful..bright..optimistic..sunny..pleasant..and hope. ---Preeti

RESEARCH METHODS 

---

I. Why Are Research Methods Important?
Science, at a basic level attempts to answer questions (such as "why are we aggressive) through careful observation and collection of data. These answers can then (at a more complex or higher level) be used to further our knowledge of us and our world, as well as help us predict subsequent events and behavior. But, this requires a systematic/universal way of collecting and understanding data -- otherwise there is chaos.

At a Practical level, methodology helps US understand and evaluate the merit of all the information we're confronted with everyday. For example, do you believe in the following studies?

1) study indicated that the life span of left-handed people is significantly shorter than those who are right hand dominant.

2) study demonstrated a link between smoking and poor grades.

There are many aspects of these studies that are necessary before one can evaluate the validity of the results. However, most people do not bother to find out the details (which are the keys to understanding the studies) but only pay attention to the findings, even if the findings are completely erroneous.

They are also practical in the work place:

1) Mental Health Profession - relies on research to develop new therapies, and learn which therapies are appropriate and effective for different types of problems and people.

2) Business World - marketing strategies, hiring, employee productivity, etc.

Back to top

II. Different Types of Research Methods

1) Basic Research

answer fundamental questions about the nature of behavior. Not done for application, but rather to gain knowledge for sake of knowledge.

For Example, look at the titles of these publications:

a) Short and long-term memory retrieval: A comparison of effects of information overload and relatedness.

b) Electrophysiological activity in the central nucleus of the amygdala: Emotionality and stress ulcers in rats.

Some people erroneously believe that basic research is useless. In reality, basic research is the foundation upon which others can develop applications and solutions. So while basic research may not appear to be helpful in the real world, it can direct us toward practical applications such as, but definitely not limited to:

a) Skinner - trained animals to work for reinforcement - lead to work schedules and applications in I/O psychology, therapy, and education.

b) all those therapeutic techniques that clinical psychologists and other therapists use to help people must studied to determine which are most effective for which situations, people, and problems.

2) Applied Research

concerned with finding solutions to practical problems and putting these solutions to work in order to help others.

Some examples of publication titles:

a) Effects of exercise, relaxation, and management skills training on physiological stress indicators.

b) Promoting automobile safety belt use by young children.

Today, there is a push to more applied research. This is no small part due to the perspective in the United States where we want solutions and we want them now! BUT, we still need to keep our perspective on the need for basic research.

3) Program Evaluation

look at existing programs in such areas as government, education, criminal justice, etc., and determine the effectiveness of these programs. DOES THE PROGRAM WORK?

For example - Does capital punishment work? Think of all the issues surrounding this program and how hard it is to examine its effectiveness. The most immediate issue, how do you define the purpose and "effectiveness" of capital punishment? If the purpose is to prevent convicted criminals from ever committing that same crime or any other crime, than capital punishment is an absolute - 100% effective. However, if the point of capital punishment is to deter would-be criminals from committing crimes, then it is a completely different story.

Back to top

---

III. How Do Non-Scientists Gather Information?

We all observe our world and make conclusions. HOW de we do this:

1) seek an authority figure - teacher tells you facts...you believe them. Is this such a good idea?

For example, if your teacher tells you that there is a strong body of evidence suggesting that larger brains = greater intelligence.

2) intuition - discussed in previous chapter.

Are women are more romantic then men?
Is cramming for an exam is the best way to study?

Whatever you opinion, do you have data to support your OPINIONS about these questions???

Luckily, there is a much better path toward the TRUTH...the Scientific Method.

---

IV. THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

How do we find scientific truth? The scientific method is NOT perfect, but it is the best method available today.

To use the scientific method, all topics of study must have the following criteria:

1) must be testable (e.g., can you test the existence of god?)

2) must be falsifiable - easy to prove anything true (depends on situation), but systematically demonstrating a subject matter to be false is quite difficult (e.g., can you prove that god does not exist?)

back to top

A. Goals of the Scientific Method

Describe, Predict, Select Method, Control, Collect Data, Analyze, Explanation

1) Description - the citing of the observable characteristics of an event, object, or individual. Helps us to be systematic and consistent.

This stage sets the stage for more formal stages - here we acquire our topic of study and begin to transform it from a general concept or idea into a specific, testable construct.

a) Operational Definitions - the definition of behaviors or qualities in terms of how they are to be measured. Some books define it as the description of ...the actions or operations that will be made to measure or control a variable.

Examples:

How can you define "life change"? One possibility is the score on the Social Readjustment Rating Scale.

How do you define obesity, abnormality, etc. in a way that is testable and falsifiable?

2) Prediction - here we formulate testable predictions or HYPOTHESES about behavior (specifically, about our variables). Thus, we may define a hypothesis as a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. For example, one may hypothesize that as alcohol consumption increases driving ability decreases.

Hypotheses are usually based on THEORIES - statements which summarize and explain research findings.

3) Select Methodology & Design - chose the most appropriate research strategy for empirically addressing your hypotheses.

4) Control - method of eliminating all unwanted factors that may effect what we are attempting to study (we will address in more detail later).

5) Collect Data - although the book is a little redundant and does not differentiate well between this stage and selecting the design and method, data collection is simply the execution and implementation of your research design.

6) Analyze & Interpret the Data - use of statistical procedures to determine the mathematical and scientific importance (not the "actual" importance or meaningfulness) of the data. Were the differences between the groups/conditions large enough to be meaningful (not due to chance)?

Then, you must indicate what those differences actually mean...discovery of the causes of behavior, cognition, and physiological processes.

7) Report/Communicate the Findings - Psychology is a science that is based on sharing - finding answers to questions is meaningless (to everyone except the scientist) unless that information can be shared with others. We do this through publications in scientific journals, books, presentations, lectures, etc.

back to top

 

B. Ways of Conducting Scientific Research

1) Naturalistic Observation - allow behavior to occur without interference or intervention by the researcher.

we all do this (people watch)

weaknesses: often not easy to observe without being intrusive.

strengths: study behavior in real setting - not lab.

2) Case Study - in depth investigation of an individual's life, used to reconstruct major aspects of a person's life. Attempt to see what events led up to current situation.

Usually involves: interview, observation, examine records, & psych. testing.

weaknesses: very subjective. Like piecing together a puzzle, often there are gaps - relies on memory of the individual, medical records, etc.

strengths: good for assessing psychological disorders - can see history and development.

3) Survey - either a written questionnaire, verbal interview, or combination of the two, used to gather information about specific aspects of behavior.

PUT IN EXAMPLE

weaknesses: self-report data (honesty is questionable)

strengths: gather a lot of information in a short time.

gather information on issues that are not easily observable.

4) Psychological Testing - provide a test and then score the answers to draw conclusions from.

Examples. - I.Q. tests, personality inventories, S.A.T., G.R.E., etc...

weaknesses: validity is always a question; honesty of answers.

strengths: can be very predictive and useful if valid.

5) Experimental Research (only way to approach Cause & Effect) - method of controlling all variables except the variable of interest which is manipulated by the investigator to determine if it affects another variable.

---

V. KEY TERMS (you will need to get very familiar with these terms to succeed in Psychology. You can also look in the glossary of terms we have provided for these and other important terms):

1) variable - any measurable condition, event, characteristic, or behavior that can be controlled or observed in a study.

Independent Variable (IV)- the variable that is manipulated by the researcher to see how it affects the dependent variable.

Dependent Variable (DV)- the behavior or response outcome that the researcher measures, which is hoped to have been affected by the IV.

2) control - any method for dealing with extraneous variable that may affect your study.

Extraneous variable - any variable other than the IV that may influence the DV in a specific way.

Example - how quickly can rats learn a maze (2 groups). What to control?

 

3) Groups (of subjects/participants) in an Experiment - experimental vs control

experimental group - group exposed to the IV in an experiment.

control group - group not exposed to IV. This does not mean that this group is not exposed to anything, though. For example, in a drug study, it is wise to have an experimental group (gets the drug), a placebo control group (receives a drug exactly like the experimental drug, but without any active ingredients), and a no-placebo control group (they get no drug...nothing)

both groups must be treated EXACTLY the same except for the IV.

4) Confound - occurs when any other variable except the IV affects the DV (extraneous variable) in a systematic way. In this case, what is causing the effect on the DV? Unsure.

Example - Vitamin X vs Vitamin Y. Group 1 run in morning, group 2 in afternoon. Do you see a problem with this? (I hope so)

Many things may lead to confounds (here are just two examples):

5) Experimenter Bias - if the researcher (or anyone on the research team) acts differently towards those in one group it may influence participants' behaviors and thus alter the findings. This is usually not done on purpose, but just knowing what group a participant is in may be enough to change the way we behave toward our participants.

6) Participant Bias (Demand Characteristics) - participants may act in ways they believe correspond to what the researcher is looking for. Thus, the participant may not act in a natural way.

7). Types of Experimental Designs: true experiment, quasi-experiment, & correlation.

a) The True Experiment: Attempts to establish cause & effect

To be a True Experiment, you must have BOTH - manipulation of the IV & Random Assignment (RA) of subjects/participants to groups.

1) manipulation of the IV - manipulation of the IV occurs when the researcher has control over the variable itself and can make adjustments to that variable.

For example, if I examine the effects of Advil on headaches, I can manipulate the doses given, the strength of each pill, the time given, etc.. But if I want to determine the effect of Advil on headaches in males vs females, can I manipulate gender? Is gender a true IV?

2) Random Assignment - randomly placing participants into groups/conditions so that all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to any condition.

b) Quasi-Experimental Designs: same as the true experiment, but now there is no random assignment of subjects to groups. Still have one group which gets the IV and one that does not, but subjects are not randomly assigned to groups.

There are many types of quasi designs (actually, too many to go into detail here). What is vital to know is that in all of them, there's a lack of RA.

c) Correlation: attempts to determine how much of a relationship exists between variables. It can not establish cause & effect.

1) to show strength of a relationship we use the Correlation Coefficient (r).

The coefficient ranges from -1.0 to +1.0:

-1.0 = perfect negative/inverse correlation

+1.0 = perfect positive correlation

0.0 = no relationship

positive correlation- as one variable increases or decreases, so does the other. Example. studying & test scores.

negative correlation - as one variable increases or decreases, the other moves in the opposite direction. Example. as food intake decreases, hunger increases.

THE BETWEEN vs WITHIN SUBJECTS DESIGN

1) Between-subjects design: in this type of design, each participant participates in one and only one group. The results from each group are then compared to each other to examine differences, and thus, effective of the IV. For example, in a study examining the effect of Bayer aspirin vs Tylenol on headaches, we can have 2 groups (those getting Bayer and those getting Tylenol). Participants get either Bayer OR Tylenol, but they do NOT get both. T

2) Within-subjects design: in this design, participants get all of the treatments/conditions. For example, in the study presented above (Bayer vs Tylenol), each participant would get the Bayer, the effectiveness measured, and then each would get Tylenol, then the effectiveness measured. See the differences?

VALIDITY vs RELIABILITY

Validity - does the test measure what we want it to measure? If yes, then it is valid.

For Example - does a stress inventory/test actually measure the amount of stress in a person's life and not something else.

Reliability - is the test consistent? If we get same results over and over, then reliable.

For Example - an IQ test - probably won't change if you take it several times. Thus, if it produces the same (or very, very similar) results each time it is taken, then it is reliable.

However, a test can be reliable without being valid, so we must be careful.

For Example - the heavier your head, the smarter you are. If I weighed your head at the same time each day, once a day, for a week, it would be virtually the same weight each day. This means that the test is reliable. But, do you think this test is valid (that is indeed measures your level of "smartness")? Probably NOT, and therefore, it is not valid.

 

 

---

So you are taking your first Psychology class...you are about to enter into a new and interesting world. You will be exposed to information that can alter the way you view yourself, others, and the world around you. It is a world in which you learn about topics such as how people can behave violently towards others, why and how people fall in love, how to people with devastating illnesses can be helped, why people conform, how people can fall into cults like Heaven's Gate, how memory works and is influenced by others, and much, much, more. So, Let's jump right in.

I. What is psychology?

A. There is so much diversity in the topics studied, theoretical perspectives, and disciplines involved, that answering this question is difficult. This may seem like I am just being evasive, but that is not so. Take these non-scientific examples:

1. Try to define basketball. What is basketball?
Is it: a game, a sport, a hobby, an art form? Is it a game of skill, technique, luck? Is it a sport in which the object is to score as many points as possible, prevent others from scoring as many points as possible, defeat another team? And so on...

As you can see, there are many perspectives. Which is correct? All show different ideas and perspectives of the same concept. Try another, similar one:

2. What do basketball players do (yes, I know that they "play basketball")?

 

B. Some Aspects/Themes of Psychology

Psychology is:

1) scientific/empirical
Psychology demands that we ask questions in a precise manner and find answers through SYSTEMATIC OBSERVATION (not simply watching people and events in some haphazard, undisciplined, manner)

As a science, psychology focuses on specific issues and seeks CAUSE & EFFECT. This is the "holy grail" (cause and effect are going to become vital components to your Psychological education, so get comfortable with them now).
back to top

2) practical -What do Psychologists Do?
There are MANY different types of psychologists, and they are much more than mad scientists locked in a laboratory running rats in a maze, or old men with beards and pipes listening to clients' problems. For example, Psychologists are involved in such daily events as why people feel depressed, and how they cope with those feelings; what factors influence people to fall in love; why people behave differently in a group than they do when they are alone, and much, much, more (did I mention that they study much more than just these few things?) Here are some more examples that you may be familiar with:

a. O.J. Simpson Trial - prosecution attempted to incorporate previous records of physical abuse as evidence - show a pattern that if he can beat his wife, he can kill his wife. Is that So??? Forensic Psychology addresses these types of issues.

b. McVeigh - Elizabeth Loftus was asked to testify at the Oklahoma City bombing trial about eye-witness testimony and the problems associated with it. There is a tremendous body of literature about eye-witness testimony be trusted? Do we accurately remember and recall what we see? Are our memories truth or fiction? Cognitive Psychology addresses these types of issues.

3) theoretical - A wise man once said, There is nothing so practical as a good theory. Psychologists collect data in an effort to understand the world around them. Once they have some information (data) they attempt to link the pieces together into a meaningful whole (theory - this too is a fundamental component of Psychology and will be covered much more throughout the semester).

4) continually evolving - psychology is very much done by people, for people. As a result, the discipline of psychology exists and changes according to society. As societies vary and evolve, so too do our perspectives on behavior and thinking, and thus, Psychology.

 

C. Definition of Psychology:

Psychology is the study of behavior and cognition.

Thus there are two major aspects of psychology:

1) Behavior - any observable activity.

EXAMPLE - During a lecture, an instructor speaks to the class --- You (and all the other excellent students) pay attention. How does the instructor know that you are paying attention during a lecture? The instructor OBSERVES YOUR BEHAVIOR - your eyes are open and directed toward the instructor, you look alert, sitting upright, not sleeping, etc. These observable behaviors are indications that you are paying attention to the instructor.

Here are a couple of questions for you to think about (the answers will come later as you become versed in Psychology): Is your behavior predictable? Why do students come into a classroom, sit down, and face the front of the room? What is it that causes behavior - personality (they sit and are quiet because they are good people) or environmental forces (they sit and are quiet because it is a class room and that is how you behave in a classroom)?

2) Cognition - any mental process.
EXAMPLE - As an instructor speaks his/her mind is doing many things very quickly...what should be said next, how should it be said, what order to say it in, etc. As you listen to the instructor, the information is carried to your brain which then decides to process that information, store it, label it, OR that it is unimportant and gets rid of it. All of these are cognitive processes.

Can you name some other types of cognitive processes?

Here a c just a few - problem solving, learning, forgetting, etc.

There are many misconceptions about psychology - let's examine some. Click here to test your basic Psychology knowledge

back to top

---

II. History of Psychology

The literal definition of Psychology is - the study of the soul or mind.

Although it seems as though psychology has been around (and should have been around) for a long time, psychology as a science really began just over 100 years ago.

Why did it take until so recently for psychology to become a science?

Until recently people did not believe that the mind could be studied objectively.

The technology was not there. We had no way to take the next step from speculation to science.

A. Psychology as a science grew out of two other existing sciences:

1) philosophy - philosophers were grappling with psychological questions hundreds of years ago, such as:

how do sensations become mental thoughts? Example - how does the feel of a hand stroking your face become a thought? And then if I ask you to imagine that feeling, can you do so?

Is the world that we perceive truly reality? Example - does color exist?

Do we actually chose our actions or are they predetermined?

To address these issues, philosophers used RATIONALISM - true knowledge comes from proper reasoning and logic to find truth. Is this a sound (or VALID) path to scientific truth?

2) physiology - while philosophy is based on rationalism, physiologists based their science on observation. They used the SCIENTIFIC METHOD (don't worry, this will be cover in detail soon), which came from EMPIRICISM.

Early physiologists studied such questions as nerve signals and receptors in the eyes. It should be easy to see how this discipline led to the field of psychology. Once Psychology became a science, several schools of thought emerged, each with its own perspectives and important people.
back to top

B. Schools of Thought

1) Structuralism

Wilhelm Wundt - set up the first psychological laboratory in 1879. He was studying an area that became known as Structuralism.

school of thought that sought to identify the components (structure) of the mind.

They believed that the way to learn about the brain and its functions was to break the mind down into it's most basic elements. Their Basic Premise was:

the whole is = to the sum of the parts

The field was popularized by Edward Titchener (student of Wundt) who was interested in the conscious mind and used a technique called INTROSPECTION.

Conscious - feelings, thoughts and sensations that you are aware of at that moment. These things make up the conscious.

Introspection - To look within and examine your own thoughts or feelings.

BUT, introspection relies on subjective or self-report data which is a week methodological form of data collection. Example. - If you become angry and then begin to examine your anger through introspection you alter your current state (most likely stopping to examine your current state will reduce your anger and hostility) and thus the experience of anger.

2) Functionalism - Moved away from focusing on the structure of the mind to a concern with how the conscious is related to behavior... How does the mind affect what people do?

One of the major proponent of Functionalism was Thorndike (created the ever-popular puzzle box).

He studied the primary issue of functionalism...WHAT FUNCTION DOES A BEHAVIOR HAVE

The puzzle box showed that the function of the animal's behavior was to get out of the box.

However, some Functionalists still used introspection and/or examined "unobservable" concepts.

WILLIAM JAMES - in his pursuit of the meaning of life, James was active in art, medicine, physiology, psychology, parapsychology, philosophy and religion.

He viewed the mind as a stream which can not be meaningfully broken down into distinct components.

...It is nothing jointed; it flows. A river or stream are metaphors by which it is most naturally described. In talking of it hereafter, let us call it the stream of thought, of consciousness, or of subjective life.

back to top

 

3) Behaviorism

Founded by John B. Watson, this school of thought that rejected the study of mental processes in favor of the study of overt behavior and external factors - OBSERVABLE EVENTS.

Another behaviorist, Ivan Pavlov, threatened to fire anyone in his laboratory who dared to use mental terminology.

Along with one of the mostly active leaders in the field, B. F. Skinner, the Behaviorists concluded that in order to understand and study psychology, we must study what we can see and record. Although Watson did not deny the existence of the human mind and mental experiences, he rejected the notion that the mental experience of, for example, thirst, causes drinking. Instead, he indicated that psychology should examine the bodily explanation of the cause of drinking (such as dehydration of muscle tissue) or the environmental explanation (such as the sight of a frosty beer when you have been working in the hot sun for many hours - not that many of you college student is familiar with beer) over the mental explanations (such as the feeling of needing a drink).

Skinner, however, was an extremist: ...I am a radical Behaviorist simply in the sense that I find no place in the formulation for anything which is mental...

4) Gestalt

"form or shape"- focused on perception & problem solving.

The school of thought (founded by Max Wertheimer) that claimed we perceive and think about wholes rather than simply about combinations of separate elements.

In other words...the whole is NOT = to the sum of the parts

Example: look at geese flying south for the winter in a "V" formation. If you look at individual geese, you do not see the "V" shape, only a couple of birds flying - but, if you look at the entire flock, you see the form and structure.

5) Psychoanalysis

school of thought that focused on the importance of the UNCONSCIOUS mind (not consciousness). In other words, psychoanalytic perspective dictates that behavior is determined by your past experiences.

SIGMUND FREUD founded this field and has become synonymous with psychology. Freud's psychoanalytic perspective began in his attempts to cure patients of physical symptoms (such as leg paralysis) that had not apparent cause. He was introduced to hypnosis - he tried this on one of his patients who, after undergoing hypnosis, was cured of all physical ailments.

He later concluded that such disorders were the result of unconscious psychological conflicts about sex cause by "cultural prohibitions against sexual enjoyment." These conflicts were then converted into physical symptoms that provided the patient with an excuse not to engage in the "taboo" behaviors.

NOTE: please read you text carefully and pay special attention to those aspects not covered in your lecture or these notes. For example, the themes related to psychology's subject matter and the different perspectives and disciplines within psychology.

SENSATION & PERCEPTION
INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY

---

When we smell a fragrant flower, are we experiencing a sensation or a perception? In everyday language, the terms "sensation" and "perception' are often used interchangeably. However, as you will soon see, they are very distinct, yet complementary processes. In this section, we will discuss some concepts central to the study of sensation and perception and then move on to discuss vision and the perception of pain (it is not possible in the scope of these notes to discuss all the senses).

I. Sensations and Perceptions

Sensations can be defined as the passive process of bringing information from the outside world into the body and to the brain. The process is passive in the sense that we do not have to be consciously engaging in a "sensing" process.

Perception can be defined as the active process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting the information brought to the brain by the senses.

A) HOW THEY WORK TOGETHER:

1) Sensation occurs:

a) sensory organs absorb energy from a physical stimulus in the environment.

b) sensory receptors convert this energy into neural impulses and send them to the brain.

2) Perception follows:

a) the brain organizes the information and translates it into something meaningful.

B) But what does "meaningful" mean? How do we know what information is important and should be focused on?

1) Selective Attention - process of discriminating between what is important & is irrelevant (Seems redundant: selective-attention?), and is influenced by motivation.

For example - students in class should focus on what the teachers are saying and the overheads being presented. Students walking by the classroom may focus on people in the room, who is the teacher, etc., and not the same thing the students in the class.

2) Perceptual Expectancy - how we perceive the world is a function of our past experiences, culture, and biological makeup.

For example, as an American, when I look at a highway, I expect to see cars, trucks, etc, NOT airplanes. But someone from a different country with different experiences and history may not have any idea what to expect and thus be surprised when they see cars go driving by.

Another example - you may look at a painting and not really understand the message the artist is trying to convey. But, if someone tells you about it, you might begin to see things in the painting that you were unable to see before.

ALL OF THIS IS CALLED Psychophysics

C) Psychophysics can be defined as, the study of how physical stimuli are translated into psychological experience.

In order to measure these events, psychologists use THRESHOLDS.

1) Threshold - a dividing line between what has detectable energy and what does not.

For example - many classrooms have automatic light sensors. When people have not been in a room for a while, the lights go out. However, once someone walks into the room, the lights go back on. For this to happen, the sensor has a threshold for motion that must be crossed before it turns the lights back on. So, dust floating in the room should not make the lights go on, but a person walking in should.

2) Difference Threshold - the minimum amount of stimulus intensity change needed to produce a noticeable change.

the greater the intensity (ex., weight) of a stimulus, the greater the change needed to produce a noticeable change.

For example, when you pick up a 5 lb weight, and then a 10 pound weight, you can feel a big difference between the two. However, when you pick up 100 lbs, and then 105 lbs, it is much more difficult to feel the difference.

3) Signal-Detection Theory - detection of a stimulus involves some decision making process as well as a sensory process. Additionally, both sensory and decision making processes are influenced by many more factors than just intensity.

a) Noise - how much outside interference exists.

b) Criterion - the level of assurance that you decide must be met before you take action. Involves higher mental processes. You set criterion based on expectations and consequences of inaccuracy.

For example - at a party, you order a pizza...you need to pay attention so that you will be able to detect the appropriate signal (doorbell), especially since there is a lot of noise at the party. But when you first order the pizza, you know it won't be there in 2 minutes, so you don't really pay attention for the doorbell. As the time for the pizza to arrive approaches, however, your criterion changes...you become more focused on the doorbell and less on extraneous noise.

---

II. SIGHT/VISION

A) the visual system works on sensing and perceiving light waves. Light waves vary in their length and amplitude:

a) wave length (also referred to as frequency, since the longer a wave, the less often/quickly it occurs) - affects color perception (ex., red=approx 700, yellow approx 600)

b) wave amplitude (this is the size/height of the wave) - affects brightness perception.

B) Structure of The EYE:

1) Cornea - the round, transparent area that allows light to pass into the eye.

2) Lens - the transparent structure that focuses light onto the retina.

3) Retina - inner membrane of the eye that receives information about light using rods and cones. The functioning of the retina is similar to the spinal cord - both act as a highway for information to travel on.

4) Pupil - opening at the center of the iris which controls the amount of light entering the eye. Dilates and Constricts.

5) Rods & Cones - many more rods (approximately 120 million) than cones (approx 6.4 million).

a) cones - visual receptor cells that are important in daylight vision and color vision.

the cones work well in daylight, but not in dim lighting. This is why it is more difficult to see colors in low light.

most are located in the center of the retina...called the FOVEA, which is a tiny spot in the center of the retina that contains ONLY cones...visual acuity is best here.

SO...when you need to focus on something you attempt to bring the image into the fovea.

b) rods - visual receptor cells that are important for night vision and peripheral vision.

the rods are better for night vision because they are much more sensitive than cones.

in addition, the rods are better for peripheral vision because there are many more on the periphery of the retina. The cones are mostly in and around the fovea but decrease as you go out.

to see best at night, look just above or below the object...this keeps the image on the rods.

C) Seeing In Color - we can see many colors, but only have 3 types of cones that receive information about color. We have cones that pick up light waves for red, green, and blue.

Color Vision Theories:

1) Trichromatic Theory - this theory indicates that we can receive 3 types of colors (red, green, and blue) and that the cones vary the ratio of neural activity (Like a projection T.V.). The ratio of each each color to the other then determines the exact color that we see.

2) Opponent-Process Theory - color perception depends on the reception of pairs of antagonist colors. Each receptor can only work with one color at a time so the opponent color in the pair is blocked out. Pairs = red-green, blue-yellow, black- white (light-dark).

Note: Most every Introductory Psychology book has a demonstration on the Opponent-Process theory. Please look for the one in your book and give it a try.

DOES COLOR EXIST? People just assume that because we see colors, that they actually exist in the world. In other words, that when they see the color red, that red is a real, physical, tangible, "thing". But is it, or is color just a matter of our perception? If we had different types of nervous systems, we would see things differently (literally) and so wouldn't we think those other things we saw were the real "things"? Let's examine this question of perception a bit further.

---

II) PERCEPTION

Much of our understanding of how and why we perceive things comes from Gestalt Psychology

For example - one of the most well known Gestalt principles is the Phi Phenomenon, which is the illusion of movement from presenting stimuli in rapid succession. When you see a cartoon or running Christmas lights, you see movement (although none actually exists) because of this principle.

A) Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization

1) figure-ground - this is the fundamental way we organize visual perceptions. When we look at an object, we see that object (figure) and the background (ground) on which it sits. For example, when I see a picture of a friend, I see my friends face (figure) and the beautiful Sears brand backdrop behind my friend (ground).

2) simplicity/pragnanz (good form) - we group elements that make a good form. However, the idea of "good form" is a little vague and subjective. Most psychologists think good form is what ever is easiest or most simple. For example, what do you see here: : > )

do you see a smiling face? There are simply 3 elements from my keyboard next to each other, but it is "easy" to organize the elements into a shape that we are familiar with.

3) proximity - nearness=belongingness. Objects that are close to each other in physical space are often perceived as belonging together.

4) similarity - do I really need to explain this one? As you probably guessed, this one states that objects that are similar are perceived as going together. For example, if I ask you to group the following objects: (* * # * # # #) into groups, you would probably place the asterisks and the pound signs into distinct groups.

5) continuity - we follow whatever direction we are led. Dots in a smooth curve appear to go together more than jagged angles. This principle really gets at just how lazy humans are when it comes to perception.

6) common fate - elements that move together tend to be grouped together. For example, when you see geese flying south for the winter, they often appear to be in a "V" shape.

7) closure - we tend to complete a form when it has gaps.

 

B) Illusions - an incorrect perception caused by a distortion of visual sensations.

1) Muller-Luyer Illusion

2) Reversible Figures - ambiguous sensory information that creates more than 1 good form. For example, the picture of two faces looking toward each other that is also a vase. I am sure most every Introductory Psychology book has this example.

3) Impossible Figures - objects that can be represented in 2-dimensional pictures but can not exist in 3-dimensional space despite our perceptions. You know the artist, Escher who draws the pictures like...the hands drawing each other, the waterfall that goes down and stays level at the same time, etc...

 

C) THE PERCEPTION OF PAIN

Pain is an unpleasant yet important function for survival: warning system (but not all pain is needed for survival).

There are two different pathways to the brain on which pain can travel - information brought from free nerve endings in the skin to the brain via two different systems:

1) fast pathways - registers localized pain (usually sharp pain) and sends the information to the cortex in a fraction of a second. EX. - cut your finger with a knife.

2) slow pathways - sends information through the limbic system which takes about 1-2 seconds longer than directly to the cortex (longer lasting, aching/burning).

Factors in Pain Perception - not an automatic result of stimulation:

1) expectations - research shown that our expectations about how much something will hurt can effect our perception.

Melzack - indicated that believing that something will be very painful helps us prepare for it.

For example - child birth: Lamaze method falsely leads us to believe it won't be painful. Maybe if we know it will be bad we can adequately prepare to handle it.

another example - placebo effect - if we believe pain has stopped, it may.

2) personality - people with negative types of personalities often have more pain. E

For example - a very uptight person may experience muscle pains, back pains, etc.

3) mood - bad moods, angry, unhappy, etc, can lead to the experience of increased pain.

For example - study manipulated moods of subjects then asked them to complete questionnaires of pain perception. Those in negative mood group reported significantly more pain than other subjects.

So, it seems that our brains can regulate, control, determine, and even produce pain.

 

THEORIES OF PAIN PERCEPTION

1) Gate Control Theory (Melzack & Walls, 1965) - incoming pain must pass through a "gate" located in the spinal cord which determines what information about pain will be sent to the brain. So, it can be opened to allow pain through or closed to prevent pain from being perceived.

The Gate - actually a neural network controlled by the brain. Located in an area of the spinal cord called the Substansia Gelatinosa. There are two types of nerve fibers in this area:

a) large - sends fast signals and can prevent pain by closing the gate.

b) small - sends slower signals which open the gate. So - when pain occurs it is because the large fibers are off and the small are on, opening the gate.

Since the gate is controlled by the brain, he factors discussed earlier (expectations, mood, personality) influence the functioning of the gate.

 

Contradiction to Gate Control Theory:

1) endorphins - the body's own pain killers (morphine-like). May explain acupuncture, acupressure, pain tolerance during last two weeks of pregnancy, etc.

BUT- endorphins may work with the gate control theory - maybe pain is perceived, endorphins are released, so the brain no longer needs the signals and closes the gate.

 

PHANTOM LIMBS

ability to feel pain, pressure, temperature, and many other types of sensations including pain in a limb that does not exist (either amputated or born without).

the feelings and the pain are sometimes so life-like that person attempts to pick things up with phantom hand, step with phantom foot or leg, etc. Often person feels phantom moving in perfect coordination with the rest of the body - some report a missing arm extending outward at a 90 degree angle so they turn sideways when going through a doorway.

may occur right after amputation or not until years later.

often felt as part of the body (belonging to the rest of the body). EX. - with a missing leg, some report having a phantom foot but not the rest of the leg. Still, the foot feels as though it is part of the body.

Go to Phantom Limb Pages - includes case studies

Explanations:

1) the neuroma explanation - remaining nerves in the stump grow into nodules (neuromas) at the end of the stump continue to fire signals. Signals follow the same pathways the brain as when the appendage existed.

2) the spinal cord explanation - neurons in the spinal cord that are no longer receiving information from the lost appendage continue to send information to the brain.

Problem - studies have shown that when areas in the spinal cord are severed often feelings still being perceived from areas that meet the spinal cord in lower areas (below separation in spinal cord).

3) the brain explanation - signals in the somatosensory circuits of the brain change when the limb is lost which produce the phantom...the brain compensates for the loss or altered signals. This has been expanded - brain contains a network of fibers that not only respond to stimulation but continually generates a pattern of impulses that indicate that the body is intact and functioning. Thus, the brain creates the impression that the limb exists and is al right. This system may be prewired.

4) the hardwired explanation - we may have a biological makeup to be born with all of our appendages. So, when we are born w/o one or lose one, the nerves are still there and are still going to send the information.

---

Please note that we can not cover ALL the senses in class so make sure you read about taste, touch, hearing, and smell in the book.

---

 

 

Muller-Lyer explained

Although many theories exist for this illusion, there is no certain explanation. One theory is based on eye movement. When the arrows point inwards, our gaze rests inside the angles formed by the arrows. When they point outwards, our eyes demarcate the entire perspective and our gaze rests outside the angles. The outward pointing arrows make the figure more open and so the horizontal line appears longer.

The illusion takes its name from Franz Carl Müller-Lyer (1857-1916), who studied medicine in Strasbourg and served as assistant director of the city's psychiatric clinic. Müller-Lyer's main works were in the field of sociology. He himself attempted to explain the illusion he had discovered as follows: "the judgment not only takes the lines themselves into consideration, but also, unintentionally, some part of the space on either side." He published two articles on the illusion bearing his name. ('Optical Illusions' 1889, and 'Concerning the Theory of Optical Illusions: on Contrast and Confluxion' 1896)

Favreau (1977) studied a number of textbooks in which Müller-Lyer presented and measured the figures. He noticed that in many cases, the figure had been drawn the wrong way round so that the illusion appeared more forceful!

 

 

STRESS & HEALTH

---

STRESS - we all have it, we all feel, but just how important is it?

How much does stress influence our daily lives?

How much does stress influence our lives long-term?

Can stress Kill us? Is it all bad?

In this section, we will explore stress - what it is, how it progresses, and the type of damage it can cause.

---

I. BACKGROUND

In 1925 a second year medical student named Hans Selye observed that people suffering from a wide variety of somatic (physical) disorders all seemed to have the same or similar symptoms. For example, many of these people reported:

decreased appetite, decreased muscular strength and endurance, and lowered levels of ambition or drive.

Selye, unable to find a common disease or disorder to explain these behaviors, called this group of symptoms, the SYNDROME OF JUST BEING SICK. In addition, he found that these symptoms occurred whenever: the human organism needed to adapt to a changing internal or external environment.

This was the first observation and identification that eventually led to the term STRESS

At first, Selye defined STRESS as, a nonspecific response of the body to any demand made upon it. Even this initial definition implies that not all stress is a result of "bad" things happening to us.

Later, his JUST BEING SICK syndrome evolved into the GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME which he defined as, the physiological processes and results of stress.

From this, we get a modern, more comprehensive definition of STRESS:

a psychological and physical response of the body that occurs whenever we must adapt to changing conditions, whether those conditions be real or perceived.

---

II. TYPES OF STRESS

As I eluded to earlier, not all type of stress are bad (in fact, many people do not know that there are different types of stress).

A. DISTRESS - stress due to an excess of adaptive demands placed upon us. Thus, this is the BAD stress.

Results when the demands upon us are so great that they lead to bodily and mental damage. Distress is damaging, excessive or pathogenic (disease producing) stress.

B. EUSTRESS - the optimal amount of stress which helps promote health and growth.

Unfortunately, most humans (especially Americans) are more likely to be in distress.

When psychologists speak of controlling stress or stress management, it usually means quantitatively reducing the amount of stress that we experience and an active attempt to change distress into eustress.

---

III. STRESS AND ILLNESS

Stress has powerful effects on mental functioning, mental and physical performance, interpersonal encounters, and physical well-being.

In the Principles of Internal Medicine (Harrison) it was reported that 50-80% of all physical disorders have psychosomatic or stress related origins.

 

A. Psychosomatic Illness

Many people assume erroneously that a psychosomatic illness is a fake illness or something that someone is simply imagining. That is NOT true.

Definition - a Psychosomatic Illness is a condition in which the state of mind (psyche) either causes or mediates a condition of actual, measurable damage in the body (soma).

Examples include : ulcers, asthma, migraine headaches, arthritis, and even cancer.

We discussed the differences between distress & eustress, but there is an additional "type" of stress called PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL STRESS (it is not a category like distress...) that can be defined as mental upset that triggers a physiological stress response. Thus, it is stress that leads to psychosomatic illness.

In our culture, psychophysiological stress is the most common type of stress AND is the major factor in the onset of psychosomatic illness.

Since we have been discussing the fact that stress can lead to illness via the psychosomatic model, we now need to discuss what this model is and what steps are involved.

 

B. The Psychosomatic Model

The idea behind creating and understanding a model of stress related illness is that by knowing the steps that lead to illness, we can intervene at any of these steps to break the cycle and thwart the onset of illness. The model works like a stage theory - you must progress from one stage (or step) to the next in the proper order for the model to work. The steps in the Model are:

1) Sensory Stimulus - is also referred to as the STRESSOR, which can be any mental or physical demand put upon our body our mind. This can be anything from a loud noise to an exam or work load to physical activity or the in-laws coming into town.

For example, if you are stuck in a traffic jam, what is the stress and what is the stressor?

Stressor = traffic jam

Stress = mental and physical response to the stressor

2) Perception - the active process of bringing an external stimulus to the CNS (especially the brain) for interpretation.

A stressor is often an external event...but for a stressor to affect a human it must get into the mind-body system. It is through perception that this occurs.

3) Cognitive Appraisal - process of analyzing and processing information as well as categorizing and organizing it. Recall the section on memory - at the cognitive appraisal level we put labels on things - good, bad, dangerous, pleasant, etc.

Thus, for most situations, it is the LABEL that we give to the information that determines whether it will be deemed stressful and trigger a physiological response.

In addition, appraisal is influenced by personal history, personal beliefs, morals, etc.

*** I will claim that it is this labeling processes that is the key component. We all make personal appraisals of situations and it is these labels that determine our stress level and stress response. For example, my father becomes outraged while sitting in traffic while I have no problem with it. He labels traffic as a very bad and, in his words "infuriating". I think traffic is simply a part of driving in a city...I can't do anything about it, so why label it as a "bad" thing?

4) Emotional Arousal - If we classify/label something as stressful, it then produces a bodily/physiological response. Remember, anytime a subjective experience of emotion occurs, it is followed by a change in autonomic physiology. So, at this stage, we simply experience an emotion...nothing else at this point, just the production (or beginning) of an emotion.

So, any emotion we experience, be it joy, fear, excitement, anger, etc., will elicit a stress response in the body.

At a physiological level, we can not differentiate between positive and negative emotions.

5) Mind-Body Connection - here the emotional arousal is changed into a bodily change so that you may adapt to the situation and respond appropriately. Now, the emotional arousal BEGINS TO BE CONVERTED into that bodily response or change we have addressed.

This change will/can occur at two levels:

a) nervous system - sympathetic and parasympathetic systems. Short-term changes occur and work on an electrical level.

For example: you are afraid and your bodily response is to tremble.

b) endocrine system - produces slower, longer lasting responses using chemicals, hormones, and glands.

*emotional arousal stimulates the hypothalamus which sends messages through the sympathetic nervous system to the appropriate organ.

*in addition the pituitary gland is stimulated and results in hormone production

6) Physical Arousal - Once the mind-body connection has been made and the bodily changes occur, these changes are called physical arousal.

7) Physical Effects - Now the internal organs begin to be affected by the physical arousal. For example, increased heart rate, blood pressure, dilation of the pupils, etc., Sound familiar??? Like the Fight-or-flight response.

8) Disease - If the physical effects continue for a sustained period of time (this varies) the imbalance of functioning can result in disease. One or more organ can become exhausted and work inefficiently or not at all.

At this point, we would say that the person has a psychosomatic disease. But, we give them a specific name: PSYCHOGENIC DISEASE - physical disease that have a change in mental state as the major cause. Other diseases which may be influenced by stress/the mind, but do not have them as the MAJOR CAUSE are not psychogenic (e.g., cancer, diabetes, etc.).

*this model is an EXACERBATION CYCLE - arousal, tension, and disease can breed further stress responses and thus become even more intense. For example, how would you respond if a doctor told you today that you have cancer?

---

IV. MAJOR TYPES/SOURCES OF STRESS

Although we know that almost anything can be a source of stress, we have 4 major classifications or types of stress:

A) FRUSTRATION - stress due to any situation in which the pursuit of some goal is thwarted. Frustration is usually short-lived, but some frustrations can be source of major stress:

1) failures - we all fail. But, if we set unrealistic goals, or place too much emphasis on obtaining certain successes, failure can be devastating.

2) Losses - deprivation of something that you once had and considered a "part" of your life. Can result in tremendous stress.

B) CONFLICT - two or more incompatible motivations or behavioral impulses compete for expression. When faced with multiple motivations or goals, you must chose and this is where the problems/conflict arise.

Studies have indicated that the more conflict a person experiences, the greater the likelihood for anxiety, depression, and physical symptoms. There are 3 major types of conflicts:

1) Approach-Approach: a choice must be made between two attractive goals. You may want both, but can only have one. For example, "Since I don't have to work today, should I play basketball or golf? Do I go out for pizza or Chinese food?" Mmmmm...pizza!

This type of conflict is the least demanding and least damaging. You rarely collapse at a restaurant because you can't decide between the lobster and the steak.

2) Avoidance-Avoidance: a choice must be made between two unattractive goals. "Caught between a rock and a hard place."

These conflicts are usually very unpleasant and highly stressful.

3) Approach-Avoidance: choice must be made to pursue a single goal that has both positive and negative aspects. For example, asking someone on a date.

This type of conflict often produces VACILLATION: going and back and forth in decision making.

Studies have shown that even animals vacillate.

Miller (1959) concluded, "in trying to resolve an approach-avoidance conflict, one should focus more on decreasing avoidance motivation than on increasing approach motivation."

So, if you have a friend who is vacillating over whether to ask someone on a date, you should downplay the negative aspects of possible rejection rather than dwelling on how much fun the date could be if only...

C) CHANGE - life changes are noticeable alterations in one's living circumstances that require adjustment.

1) Holmes & Rahe (1967) - developed the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) to measure life changes. They found that, after interviewing thousands of people, while BIG changes like death of a loved one are very stressful, small life changes have tremendous effects.

Studies using the SRRS have indicated that people with higher scores tend to be more vulnerable to many different physical and psychological illnesses.

Further studies have found that the scale measures a wide range of experiences that may result in stress as opposed to just measuring "life-changes".

D) Pressure - expectations or demands that one must behave in a certain way. For example, I am under pressure to perform in very specific ways when I am in front of a class as the "teacher".

Surprisingly, pressure has only recently been examined in terms of psychological and physical effects due to stress. Studies have found the Pressure inventory (created in the 80's) is more highly correlated with psychological problems than the SRRS.

---

V. STRESS & PSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONING

A) IMPAIRED TASK PERFORMANCE - Baumeister (1984) found that stress interferes with attention and therefore, performance.

1) increased stress = increased distractibility

2) increased stress = over thinking on tasks that should be "automatic".

For example: a free throw at "crunch time"

B) BURNOUT - physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion due to work-related stress.

Cause is not sudden, but prolonged exposure to stress. Increases the more "jobs/tasks" placed upon you. For example, having multiple roles such as parent, student, spouse, etc.

C) POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER - disturbed behavior that is attributed to a major stressful event, but emerges after the event has ended (often years later).

Very common in the 70's - Vietnam war veterans had symptom usually 9-60 months later.

Occurs in general population as well:

1) most common - rape

2) seeing someone die or severely injured

3) close brush with death

Symptoms include - nightmares, sleep disturbances, jumpiness, etc.

D) Psychological Problems/Disorders - usually the result of prolonged stress:

insomnia, nightmares, poor academic performance, sexual dysfunctions, anxiety, schizophrenia, depression, eating disorders, and lots more.

What can you do about it???

There are many techniques to reduce stress and the progression through the Psychosomatic Model. For example, there are relaxation techniques such as Meditation, Progressive Neuromuscular Relaxation, exercise, biofeedback, and Selective Awareness, just to name a few.

 

DEVELOPMENT 
                (INFANCY - ADOLESCENCE) <